What do the totem pole process (commission, creation, ritual) and purpose communicate about the culture and values of the indigenous Americans living in the Pacific Northwest? Moreover, how have contemporary artists used traditional inspiration -- direct allusions to totem structure and symbolism -- to sustain cultural and familial values and promote messages of social change?
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Background: According to Keri Dearborn, author of Totem Poles, 19th century Tlingit, Haida, Kwakiutl, Tsimshian, and Gitksan peoples of the Pacific Northwest (primarily Alaska and British Columbia) were carvers of these poles (Dearborn 14). Very few remain, but the Society for Science and the Public reports that elders have tried to pass on the skill of carving to younger generations in hopes of preserving it. 87 boys of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) restored 100 totem poles in Alaska after learning the skills of their ancestors (Society 269).
Totem poles serve as the Pacific Northwest native’s visual records of their history and legends. Knowledge of these poles’ commission and creation, ritual, and significance foster a deeper understanding of the role of narrative/symbolic art as a means of cultural preservation. |
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Commission
Commissioning someone to create a totem pole is the first step in the totem pole process. In this step we encounter the commissioner and the carver. The commissioner requests figures and decides their order, and he or she ultimately pays for the commission. Marius Barbeau, a writer for the Geographical Review notes in his research that often times in some tribes the family members will work together to make their own totem pole (and do not commission outsiders). The carver is a high-ranking individual in the tribe, and admired for his talent. In her article on totem poles, Keri Dearborn also explains how the carving trade passed from father to son, and master carvers typically worked with several apprentices to teach and train them in this unique craft. Once commissioned, the carver decides how the figures will be presented upon the pole.
Commissioning someone to create a totem pole is the first step in the totem pole process. In this step we encounter the commissioner and the carver. The commissioner requests figures and decides their order, and he or she ultimately pays for the commission. Marius Barbeau, a writer for the Geographical Review notes in his research that often times in some tribes the family members will work together to make their own totem pole (and do not commission outsiders). The carver is a high-ranking individual in the tribe, and admired for his talent. In her article on totem poles, Keri Dearborn also explains how the carving trade passed from father to son, and master carvers typically worked with several apprentices to teach and train them in this unique craft. Once commissioned, the carver decides how the figures will be presented upon the pole.
Creation
In the creation of the totem pole either the family or the commissioned carvers will cut down a cedar tree. Linda and Carl Muggli, well known totem pole carvers residing in Minneapolis, claim that the tree must be debarked right away to keep from worms. Then the design is sketched on log with charcoal. Dearborn describes the process in which the poles are carved: 1st the carver chips basic shape of the figures with a special adze tool (which is like a curved hammer with a large gouge on the end). Then he uses antler chisels, beaver-tooth or metal carving knives, or a stone maul and hammer to carve details. Finally, he paints the pole with long-lasting paint made of a mixture of plants/minerals and salmon eggs--traditional colors are red and black, accented with brown, green, white, and yellow.
In the creation of the totem pole either the family or the commissioned carvers will cut down a cedar tree. Linda and Carl Muggli, well known totem pole carvers residing in Minneapolis, claim that the tree must be debarked right away to keep from worms. Then the design is sketched on log with charcoal. Dearborn describes the process in which the poles are carved: 1st the carver chips basic shape of the figures with a special adze tool (which is like a curved hammer with a large gouge on the end). Then he uses antler chisels, beaver-tooth or metal carving knives, or a stone maul and hammer to carve details. Finally, he paints the pole with long-lasting paint made of a mixture of plants/minerals and salmon eggs--traditional colors are red and black, accented with brown, green, white, and yellow.
Community Ritual
After the creation of the totem pole a village would gather to celebrate. These public gatherings were to commemorate and remember special people and events. For example, in the instance of a chief’s death his son must have commissioned a totem pole before he claimed his father's inheritance--his village gathered to recognize his new position and to honor their former chief. The village would then have a feast called a "potlatch" before erecting the pole. In her article, Dearborn stresses the fact that raising the totem pole takes a lot of manpower considering poles can be anywhere from 6 to 70 ft tall. Poles were commonly placed to the front-center of a family’s longhouse, and sometimes had a hole or arch to form a doorway.
After the creation of the totem pole a village would gather to celebrate. These public gatherings were to commemorate and remember special people and events. For example, in the instance of a chief’s death his son must have commissioned a totem pole before he claimed his father's inheritance--his village gathered to recognize his new position and to honor their former chief. The village would then have a feast called a "potlatch" before erecting the pole. In her article, Dearborn stresses the fact that raising the totem pole takes a lot of manpower considering poles can be anywhere from 6 to 70 ft tall. Poles were commonly placed to the front-center of a family’s longhouse, and sometimes had a hole or arch to form a doorway.
Symbolic Significance
Perhaps the most important aspect of totem poles is their story. Dearborn writes that the final part in the totem pole ceremony consisted of an elder explaining the significance of the totems (essentially telling the story behind the creation of the pole) in order to teach the history and heritage of their ancestors to the younger generations. Totems depict mythological creatures, animals, or plants. Barbeau claims that the most common symbols included the raven, eagle, wolf, beaver, bear. Less popular ones included the frog, whale, and fireweed. Furthermore, clans were very possessive of their special emblem. These symbols displayed pride, and helped the clan members to recognize their kin in other villages. Interestingly, the poles are read from the bottom up with the most important figure on the very bottom and the clan emblem on the very top.
Now we know that every villager plays a special role in the totem pole process. The commissioner initiates the construction after an occasion. The carver creates the visual record. The village gathers, feasts, and together raises the pole. And finally, the elder tells the story behind the pole to his people in hopes of preserving the tales and history that make them who they are.
Perhaps the most important aspect of totem poles is their story. Dearborn writes that the final part in the totem pole ceremony consisted of an elder explaining the significance of the totems (essentially telling the story behind the creation of the pole) in order to teach the history and heritage of their ancestors to the younger generations. Totems depict mythological creatures, animals, or plants. Barbeau claims that the most common symbols included the raven, eagle, wolf, beaver, bear. Less popular ones included the frog, whale, and fireweed. Furthermore, clans were very possessive of their special emblem. These symbols displayed pride, and helped the clan members to recognize their kin in other villages. Interestingly, the poles are read from the bottom up with the most important figure on the very bottom and the clan emblem on the very top.
Now we know that every villager plays a special role in the totem pole process. The commissioner initiates the construction after an occasion. The carver creates the visual record. The village gathers, feasts, and together raises the pole. And finally, the elder tells the story behind the pole to his people in hopes of preserving the tales and history that make them who they are.
Crosscurrents - Connections to the Past
- MOAI There are many theories surrounding the creation of the monumental stone sculptures on Easter Island, but the truth is that they originated out of an established Polynesian tradition. These simplistic human sculptures are similar to Pacific Northwest Native American totem poles in that they required immense manpower to erect and most likely served to commemorate deceased chiefs and ancestors.Researchers infer that these statues were commemorative because the Polynesians who arrived on the island between 800 and 1200 ce erected the moai figures on top of their ahu stone altar platforms within their sacred religious sites along the coast.
- MALAGAN & SPIRIT POLES The indigenous people of New Ireland (one the largest islands of the nation of Papua New Guinea) still participate in a set of death and commemorative rites known as malagan. This ceremony can take place up to two years following a person’s death. Similar to how the NW Native American chiefs used the rituals and ceremonies surrounding the totem pole to honor past chiefs and gain the respect of their people, the chiefs of New Ireland used the malagan ceremonies to commemorate deceased family members and assert their authority as clan leaders. Believing that an individual’s spirit remained in the village after death, the Asmat people of West Papua carved and erected elaborate spirit poles called bisj to pay tribute to their ancestors. There is a special ritual involved in the felling the tree and special ceremonies and feasts that accompany the creation process.
- ROMAN COMMEMORATIVE SCULPTURE The Romans also commemorated their deceased and honored their leaders using elaborate sculptures. However, instead of using animals to represent individual characteristics and family ties, the Romans emphasized verism, the attempt to depict individuals as realistically as possible. Sculptures such as the Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (end of 1st century BC) would have been created and put on display during public occasions, most commonly funeral ceremonies. Just like the NW Native Americans used totems to show family lineage and community connections, reinforcing the power of the Chief, respecting heritage and valuing the wisdom of elders were core values in Ancient Roman society.
Contemporary Connections
Totem poles have remained a powerful and important form of cultural preservation and continue to inspire community gatherings in Alaska. Many young people are also taking up the trade of traditional totem pole carving. The video below provides a great example of how this old art form still plays an important role in recording and recognizing familial and community ties.
In the 1990s, a Raven totem was raised at the University of Alaska Southeast. But there was a problem. "We have to have both an Eagle and Raven pole to have social and spiritual balance," said Rosita Worl, president of the Native nonprofit Sealaska Heritage Institute. In 2009, the institute managed a project to carve an Eagle pole to balance the Raven. Watch the video to meet the carvers Joe and TJ Young and the Native students who helped make it happen.
Similarly, contemporary artists immersed in modern, urban art scenes are still using the unique structure of the traditional totem pole to communicate messages about current issues. The traditional totem poles were designed to be informational and convey messages that dealt with cultural identity, morality, and character. That said, the fact that artists continue to create work using the same composition (and similar symbols) as the traditional totems demonstrates how cultural.current issues may change with the times, but the artistic methods of communication of social commentary and political activism often hold strong. The article "Run It Up the Totem Pole and See Who Salutes" provides some great examples of contemporary work that comments on the current state of society using the ancient erect structures of the totem poles.
Contemporary Spotlight Artist! Bill Reid
Bill Reid was born to a Haida mother and American father with Scottish and German roots. He worked as a broadcaster for CBC in Toronto in the 1950s. During this time he studied jewelry-making at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute. He later studied classic European jewelry-making at the London School of Design. Reid claims his whole life changed when he was first introduced to Haida art. He was fascinated by the intricate carvings and designs, rich colors, and deep symbolism. Reid's studies of his Haida heritage inspired his massive sculptural work. Much of his work eloquently alluded to the traditional craft of totem pole carving. Celebrating and defending the Haida, Reid used the fame his art garnered him to support their land claims. (Bill Reid Gallery)
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Bill Reid and "The Raven and the First Men" Sculpture
Work depicted: Bill Reid “The Raven and the First Men,” 1980 Yellow cedar, laminated and carved 1.88 m H x 1.92 m diameter Collection of the UBC Museum of Anthropology Vancouver, Canada Walter C. and Marianne Koerner Collection Photo: Bill McLennan, UBC Museum of Anthropology, Vancouver, Canada |
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- Bill Reid Gallery - About
- "Reid created over 1500 works over his long career, from the ‘monumentally small’ to the ‘exquisitely huge’. In addition, and perhaps of greater impact were his parallel careers as broadcaster, writer, poet, storyteller and communicator.
- Bill Reid was the pivotal force in introducing to the world the great art traditions of the indigenous people of the Northwest Coast. His legacies include infusing that tradition with modern ideas and forms of expression, influencing emerging artists, and building lasting bridges between First Nations and other peoples."
BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXTBOOK: Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren. Art History. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2014. Print.
SCHOLARLY ARTICLE: Barbeau, Marius. "Totem Poles: A Recent Native Art of the Northwest Coast of America." Geographical Review 20.2 (1930): 258-72. Print.
MUSEUM: "Totems to Turquoise." Bill Reid. American Museum of Natural History, 2016. Web. 19 May 2016.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES:
Dearborn, Keri. "Totem Poles." Faces: People, Places, and Cultures 18.8 (2002):
14. Print.
Overturf, Sidne. "Totem Poles Tell Tales." Grit 120.22 (2002): 10. Print.
Society for Science and the Public. "Totem Pole Restoring Booms in Alaska." The Science News Letter 37.17 (1940): 269. Print.
Swan, James Gilchrist. Klallam people at Port Townsend. N.d. Yale Collection of Western Americana,
Thunderbird, Shannon. Society. N.d. Askville. Web. 15 May 2013.
<http://askville.amazon.com/gang-explain-potlatch/AnswerViewer.do?requestId=9751874>.
TEXTBOOK: Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren. Art History. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2014. Print.
SCHOLARLY ARTICLE: Barbeau, Marius. "Totem Poles: A Recent Native Art of the Northwest Coast of America." Geographical Review 20.2 (1930): 258-72. Print.
MUSEUM: "Totems to Turquoise." Bill Reid. American Museum of Natural History, 2016. Web. 19 May 2016.
ADDITIONAL SOURCES:
Dearborn, Keri. "Totem Poles." Faces: People, Places, and Cultures 18.8 (2002):
14. Print.
Overturf, Sidne. "Totem Poles Tell Tales." Grit 120.22 (2002): 10. Print.
Society for Science and the Public. "Totem Pole Restoring Booms in Alaska." The Science News Letter 37.17 (1940): 269. Print.
Swan, James Gilchrist. Klallam people at Port Townsend. N.d. Yale Collection of Western Americana,
Thunderbird, Shannon. Society. N.d. Askville. Web. 15 May 2013.
<http://askville.amazon.com/gang-explain-potlatch/AnswerViewer.do?requestId=9751874>.
