​The Creation Story
The Aztec creation story evolved over the civilization's existence. The was due in part to the simple passage of time, but the story may have also been altered purposefully to fulfill political purposes. For example, the Aztec belief that their empire lied at the center of the universe, and is therefore the most important civilization on Earth, could have been used as a tool to justify political or military actions. One common variation is the legend of the five suns - the five births of the world: five suns, and so five different worlds, have existed. Despite fluctuations in the creation story, the theme of birth, death, and rebirth remains constant. But it's not a story of endless cycles, as you may see in other cultures. For the Aztecs, there was a definitive beginning to the universe.
In the beginning, the universe was void. At some definite point in time, the dual god, Ometecuhtli/Omecihuatl, created itself. This god was made of paradoxes: it represented good and bad, chaos and order, masculine and feminine. It had four children, which came to represent the four cardinal directions. The gods were Huizilopochtli (south), Quetzalcoatl (east), Tezcatlipoca (west), and Xipe Totec (north).
These four gods created other gods, along with water and the sea monster Cipactli, a part fish, part crocodile creature that consumed everything the four gods created as they fell into the water. Because of Cipalctli's insatiable appetite for the gods' creations, the four gods attacked and eventually defeated the sea monster.
As one reference website puts it, "From Cipalctli, the universe was created (in some traditions this happened between the last two suns).  All the 13 heavens stretch into her head. The earth was created in the middle, and her tail reaches down to the underworld (Mictlán)."
The Aztec creation story is difficult to understand, and the multiple versions make piecing everything together quite confusing. The main ideas to take away are: 1. the theme of rebirth, 2. the existence of a pantheon of gods, and 3. the connection between the gods and nature.

Cosmology
The Aztecs were highly concerned with preserving a balance in nature. They did so through careful interpretation of the heavens to anticipate and avert natural disasters as well as performing sacrificial rituals to appease the gods. Huge elements of the religion - human sacrifice & religious festivals - were connected with and based off of the Aztec calendar system and cosmology. For example, every 52 years, the Aztec people were terrified that the world would end. All religious fires were extinguished, people all over the empire would go into mourning and destroy their possessions. However, when the Pleiades (a seasonal constellation) appeared, the people would be assured that they were safe - for another 52 years, at least.
Divination and astrology were used to interpret tetzauitl (or "bad omens"). These religious beliefs played parts in the arts of the time through the famous "Book XII" of Sahagún's Historia General. The book gives an impressive account of perceived "bad omens" that preceded and supposedly foretold the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. In addition, priests called tonalpuhque ("counters of days") that had a thorough knowledge of astrology and the Aztec calendar system would be consulted before important undertakings or events.

Deity
Aztec gods and goddesses each rule 1 (or more) human activities or aspects of the natural world. Many deity were adopted or adapted from other Mesoamerican cultures. But the Aztec pantheon still reflects their individual culture and concerns as a civilization; for example, because the Aztec civilization was based heavily upon farming, there are many gods dealing with agriculture.
In addition to those mentioned in above sections, here are a few important gods & goddesses:

1. Tlaloc - god of rain & agriculture
2. Huitzilopochtli - god of war & patron god of the Mexica tribe (the Aztecs)
3. Quetzalcoatl (“the feathered serpent”) - culture hero and god of civilization and order, created humans
4. Tezcatlipoca - god of destiny and fortune, connected with war and sorcery

Aztec Worldview
As discussed in earlier sections, the Aztecs were highly concerned with the dynamic between humans, nature, and the gods. As a result, they saw it as their duty to fight and die for the gods in order to keep the world order in balance. They believed that the gods predetermined each person's future and that life after death depended on the gods’ decisions and personally striving to live a balanced life.
Similar to other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztec worldview divided the universe into three levels. The middle level, Earth, was where humans lived - above the underworld and below the heavens. In acknowledgement of the underworld, the Aztecs would bury statues. The main temple in the capital city, Tenochtitlan, was thought to be the center of the universe and the earthly connection between the underworld and the heavens.

Aztec Art - Overview
In general, Aztec art was almost always related to religion. And, because religion and nature were so closely intertwined, art often depicted a wide variety of insects, birds, fish, and animals as well as the gods, who frequently resembled various kinds of animals themselves. In terms of technical characteristics, depictions of the gods were sharp, angular, and brightly colored. Other artistic subjects included priests (usually dressed as gods) performing a ritual & Aztec warriors in their armor.

Symbols in Aztec Art
The Aztec written language prior to the arrival of the Spanish was a conglomeration of three different kinds of symbols: pictograms, ideograms, and phonograms. Pictograms are simple, straightforward images that mean exactly what they are - a tree meant "tree," a snake meant "snake." Phonograms, on the other hand, are closer to an alphabet; they still use pictures, but in this case, the pictures represent a specific sound. Ideograms (or iconographs) are, in this case, the most relevant category out of the three, as they were used most often in religious art. Ideograms are symbols that represent an underlying, implied idea. For example, a warrior standing triumphantly over another, unarmed warrior would be a symbol of conquest, or repeating footprints may represent a journey or time passing. Some of the most common religious symbols were those of the sun, the eagle, the feathered serpent, and the cactus.
The Aztecs used these systems of writing in their manuscripts, known as codices. Codices are not only highly valuable sources of economic, political, and historic information, but they also provide a large amount of information on religion, rituals, and the Aztec worldview.

Pulling all this stuff together - symbols in "A View of the World"
"A View of the World" is a page from an Aztec codex (the Fejervary-Majer Codex, to be exact) and gives a summary of Aztec cosmology. As mentioned before, the cardinal directions - north, south, east, and west - in addition to the direction of "center" are integral to the cosmological creation story. In "A View of the World," the importance of these directions and their associated deity is further highlighted through the artist's placement of emphasis upon the center figure and the four boldly-framed scenes radiating outward from the top, bottom, and sides of the center image. Outside of these cardinal direction boxed-off scenes, ideograms are seen radiating out from the center in diagonals.
Each of the four cardinal directions is represented through the combination of specific deity, birds, and plants. In these scenes, the Aztec worldview of the interconnection between the gods and nature is explicitly expressed. In addition, the balance between two deity and two natural elements (a bird and a plant) in each cardinal direction scene articulates the Aztec desire for harmony between the heavens and the natural world, as well as the close relationship between the gods and nature. This theme of balance between the gods and nature is taken even further as it is observed that the plant in each scene splits up the two deity into individual, evenly-spaced areas, achieving a composition that is almost mathematical in its precision. Further, the meticulous symmetry of the piece as a whole emphasizes the Aztec belief in the need for balance in the universe.
In addition to the theme of balance expressed in "A View of the World," the Aztec calendar is referenced in the work. The 260 dots seen on the path ringing around the center figure refer to the 260-day Mesoamerican divination calendar. In addition, the 20 day signs of this same calendar are scattered throughout the image. By associating elements of the calendar with the four directions, "A View of the World" speaks to the importance of the unity of time and space in the Aztec worldview.

​Modern
In her publication, "Culture, Politics, and Identity in the Paintings of Frida Kahlo," Janice Helland analyzes Kahlo's works, finding many parallels between her art and that of the Aztecs. The following quotes are excerpts from Helland's article that expertly articulate the connection between common themes and motifs:

​Commission
  Commissioning someone to create a totem pole is the first step in the totem pole process. In this step we encounter the commissioner and the carver. The commissioner requests figures and decides their order, and he or she ultimately pays for the commission. Marius Barbeau, a writer for the Geographical Review notes in his research that often times in some tribes the family members will work together to make their own totem pole (and do not commission outsiders). The carver is a high-ranking individual in the tribe, and admired for his talent. In her article on totem poles, Keri Dearborn also explains how the carving trade passed from father to son, and master carvers typically worked with several apprentices to teach and train them in this unique craft. Once commissioned, the carver decides how the figures will be presented upon the pole.

​Creation
    In the creation of the totem pole either the family or the commissioned carvers will cut down a cedar tree. Linda and Carl Muggli, well known totem pole carvers residing in Minneapolis, claim that the tree must be debarked right away to keep from worms. Then the design is sketched on log with charcoal. Dearborn describes the process in which the poles are carved: 1st the carver chips basic shape of the figures with a special adze tool (which is like a curved hammer with a large gouge on the end). Then he uses antler chisels, beaver-tooth or metal carving knives, or a stone maul and hammer to carve details. Finally, he paints the pole with long-lasting paint made of a mixture of plants/minerals and salmon eggs--traditional colors are red and black, accented with brown, green, white, and yellow.

Community Ritual
   After the creation of the totem pole a village would gather to celebrate. These public gatherings were to commemorate and remember special people and events. For example, in the instance of a chief’s death his son must have commissioned a totem pole before he claimed his father's  inheritance--his village gathered to recognize his new position and to honor their former chief. The village would then have a feast called a "potlatch" before erecting the pole. In her article, Dearborn stresses the fact that raising the totem pole takes a lot of manpower considering poles can be anywhere from 6 to 70 ft tall. Poles were commonly placed to the front-center of a family’s longhouse, and sometimes had a hole or arch to form a doorway.

​Symbolic Significance 
    Perhaps the most important aspect of totem poles is their story. Dearborn writes that the final part in the totem pole ceremony consisted of an elder explaining the significance of the totems (essentially telling the story behind the creation of the pole) in order to teach the history and heritage of their ancestors to the younger generations. Totems depict mythological creatures, animals, or plants. Barbeau claims that the most common symbols included the raven, eagle, wolf, beaver, bear. Less popular ones included the frog, whale, and fireweed. Furthermore, clans were very possessive of their special emblem. These symbols displayed pride, and helped the clan members to recognize their kin in other villages. Interestingly, the poles are read from the bottom up with the most important figure on the very bottom and the clan emblem on the very top.
   Now we know that every villager plays a special role in the totem pole process. The commissioner initiates the construction after an occasion. The carver creates the visual record. The village gathers, feasts, and together raises the pole. And finally, the elder tells the story behind the pole to his people in hopes of preserving the tales and history that make them who they are. 

Crosscurrents - Connections to the Past​

• MOAI There are many theories surrounding the creation of the monumental stone sculptures on Easter Island, but the truth is that they originated out of an established Polynesian tradition. These simplistic human sculptures are similar to Pacific Northwest Native American totem poles in that they required immense manpower to erect and most likely served to commemorate deceased chiefs and ancestors.Researchers infer that these statues were commemorative because the Polynesians who arrived on the island between 800 and 1200 ce erected the moai figures on top of their ahu stone altar platforms within their sacred religious sites along the coast. 
  
• MALAGAN & SPIRIT POLES The indigenous people of New Ireland (one the largest islands of the nation of Papua New Guinea) still participate in a set of death and commemorative rites known as malagan. This ceremony can take place up to two years following a person’s death. Similar to how the NW Native American chiefs used the rituals and ceremonies surrounding the totem pole to honor past chiefs and gain the respect of their people, the chiefs of New Ireland used the malagan ceremonies to commemorate deceased family members and assert their authority as clan leaders. Believing that an individual’s spirit remained in the village after death, the Asmat people of West Papua carved and erected elaborate spirit poles called bisj to pay tribute to their ancestors. There is a special ritual involved in the felling the tree and special ceremonies and feasts that accompany the creation process.
  
• ROMAN COMMEMORATIVE SCULPTURE The Romans also commemorated their deceased and honored their leaders using elaborate sculptures. However, instead of using animals to represent individual characteristics and family ties, the Romans emphasized verism, the attempt to depict individuals as realistically as possible. Sculptures such as the Patrician Carrying Portrait Busts of Two Ancestors (end of 1st century BC) would have been created and put on display during public occasions, most commonly funeral ceremonies. Just like the NW Native Americans used totems to show family lineage and community connections, reinforcing the power of the Chief, respecting heritage and valuing the wisdom of elders were core values in Ancient Roman society.
  

Contemporary Connections 

T​otem poles have remained a powerful and important form of cultural preservation and continue to inspire community gatherings in Alaska. Many young people are also taking up the trade of traditional totem pole carving. The video below provides a great example of how this old art form still plays an important role in recording and recognizing familial and community ties. 

Similarly, contemporary artists immersed in modern, urban art scenes are still using the unique structure of the traditional totem pole to communicate messages about current issues. The traditional totem poles were designed to be informational and convey messages that dealt with cultural identity, morality, and character. That said, the fact that artists continue to create work using the same composition (and similar symbols) as the traditional totems demonstrates how cultural.current issues may change with the times, but the artistic methods of communication of social commentary and political activism often hold strong.  The article "Run It Up the Totem Pole and See Who Salutes" provides some great examples of contemporary work that comments on the current state of society using the ancient erect structures of the totem poles. 

Contemporary Spotlight Artist! Bill Reid

Bill Reid was born to a Haida mother and American father with Scottish and German roots. He worked as a broadcaster for CBC in Toronto in the 1950s. During this time he studied jewelry-making at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute. He later studied classic European jewelry-making at the London School of Design. Reid claims his whole life changed when he was first introduced to Haida art. He was fascinated by the intricate carvings and designs, rich colors, and deep symbolism. Reid's studies of his Haida heritage inspired his massive sculptural work. Much of his work eloquently alluded to the traditional craft of totem pole carving. Celebrating and defending the Haida, Reid used the fame his art garnered him to support their land claims.​ (Bill Reid Gallery) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY
​
TEXTBOOK: Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael Watt Cothren. Art History. 5th ed. Boston: Pearson, 2014. Print.

SCHOLARLY ARTICLE: Barbeau, Marius. "Totem Poles: A Recent Native Art of the Northwest Coast of America." Geographical Review 20.2 (1930): 258-72. Print.

MUSEUM: "Totems to Turquoise." Bill Reid. American Museum of Natural History, 2016. Web. 19 May 2016. 

ADDITIONAL SOURCES:
Dearborn, Keri. "Totem Poles." Faces: People, Places, and Cultures 18.8 (2002):
     14. Print.
Overturf, Sidne. "Totem Poles Tell Tales." Grit 120.22 (2002): 10. Print.
Society for Science and the Public. "Totem Pole Restoring Booms in Alaska." The Science News Letter 37.17  (1940): 269. Print.
Swan, James Gilchrist. Klallam people at Port Townsend. N.d. Yale Collection of Western Americana,
Thunderbird, Shannon. Society. N.d. Askville. Web. 15 May 2013.
<http://askville.amazon.com/gang-explain-potlatch/AnswerViewer.do?requestId=9751874>.

Urban Planning: Where did temples fit within a Mayan metropolis?
Mayan cities were some of the largest of the ancient age, often serving populations of up to 20,000 people. They also represent some of the first examples of “urban planning,” in that towns were organized and coordinated into certain arrangements based on the functions of different buildings. Cities often contained elaborate central complexes surrounding a plaza or a ditch. These spaces included buildings serving the most important functions in Mayan society, namely government palaces and religious temples. Mayan towns were rather standardized and different localities often had a common inventory of public buildings, like ball courts, palace compounds, and temples. The use of a central rectangular common area as a main component of urban design transcends even Mayan architecture alone and can be seen as a common concept in mesoamerican civilizations as a whole. Though it is debated among scholars, many believe that cosmology or astronomy played a role in the planning of urban centers. For example, there are records which suggest that Motecanzoma had part of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan torn down and rebuilt so the sun would rise directly over the Temple of Huitzilopochtli on a certain equinox. In addition, some cities, like Nixtun-Ch’ich’ and Teotihuacan, were laid out on a grid aligned with an East-West or North-South Axis.

Modern Day Connection: Urban planning continues to play a major role in the development of most modern cities. The foremost American example is Washington DC, where major government and cultural institutions are centered around a rectangular “mall.” The National Park service states that the purpose of the national mall is to “provide a monumental, dignified, and symbolic setting for governmental structures, museums and national memorials.” Interestingly, the National Mall houses only secular government buildings while Mayan urban centers deliberately incorporated religious and governmental structures. Thus the actual physical layout of different cities can in some ways indicate the role of religion in society.

Architectural Features: How were religious beliefs expressed physically?
The Mayan temples were largely terraced/stepped pyramids not unlike the Pyramid of Djoser in ancient Egypt or the Ziggurats of the Ancient Near East. The temples were built from hand-cut limestone, often insulated with an inner layer of mica, and covered with stucco. All were constructed without domesticated animals or wheeled vehicles. They were usually megalithic, often reaching heights of over 200 feet.
Temples often incorporated the Mayans’ exceptional understanding of astronomy and cosmology in their design, and were often built to align with specific celestial events. Planning of this kind seems to add another layer to the discipline of architecture. Often, buildings are studied for their location and their materials, but the architects of Mayan temples made architecture about the temporal as well, designing not only the building itself but also its appearance when faced with specific lighting effects.
The best example of this phenomenon is “El Castillo,” a temple at the center of Chichen Itza. El Castillo was built in between the 9th and 12th centuries C.E. and was meant to honor the feathered serpent deity Kukulkan. Sculptures of plumed serpents align with the main staircases, and on the spring and autumn equinoxes the late afternoon sun illuminates these motifs, giving the illusion of a snake moving down the side of the pyramid.

Purpose: What kind of religious role did these structures play?
Some pyramids served simply as bases for a temple at the top, and were meant to be climbed in order to hold sacrifices. Others were purely intended to be symbolic and monumental. Like other religious structures, namely mesopotamian ziggurats, the purpose of the pyramids was to bring people closer to the heavens and create a connection between man and god. Temples at the top of pyramids sometimes held tombs for high-ranking officials, but rarely served as a place of worship for everyday Mayans. Unlike many other churches and religious spaces we’ve studied this year, Mayan temples were not meant to be spaces for communal worship. Instead, they served as megalithic reminders of the importance of religion in a theocratic society. Their position in urban centers, physical design, and purpose within society all demonstrate this fact.
 
VIDEO: This video by the History Channel offers a few more examples of modern-day connections to ancient Mayan architecture.  http://www.history.com/topics/maya/videos/where-did-it-come-from-the-ancient-maya---power-centers
​
​Another Extra Resource: http://www.m_ayaruins.com/yucmap.html This website has photos of all the currently excavated Mayan sites in South America. 

Modern-Day Connection Part 2:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Cosmology and Religion" Institute of Archaeology, National Institute of Culture and History. http://www.nichbelize.org/ia-archaeology/cosmology-and-religion.html. 

Mark, Joshua J. "Early Explorers of the Maya Civilization." Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.courses.psu.edu/anth/anth008_cmg149/pyr.html. 
​
Wagner, Rob. "Facts about Mayan Pyramids." USA Today. http://traveltips.usatoday.com/mayan-pyramids-1119.html

Department of AAOA. “Teotihuacan: Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/teot2/hd_teot2.htm (October 2001)

Department of AAOA. “Tikal: Sacred Architecture.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/maya2/hd_maya2.htm (October 2001)

Smith, Michael E. "Form and Meaning in the Earliest Cities." Journal of Planning History. February 2007.