How has the dome evolved in India throughout its history and how have the Arabic religion and culture influenced it, both in style and function?
"Let architects sing of aesthetics that bring Rich clients in hordes to their knees; Just give me a home, in a great circle dome, where stresses and strains are at ease."
~R. Buckminster Fuller
Domes in Islamic Architecture:
Indian architecture has by and far been influenced the most by Islam and the Muslim empire that took over India for a while. Islamic architecture reflected not only different structural elements, but also differing religious and social needs. Domes were often seen as a symbol of power. Whether religious or political, they often served as a visual focal point of a church or capitol building. The earliest domes were placed over kiblas, that were used to point to the direction of Mecca, the holy city where the Kaaba was located and where all worshippers were supposed to voyage to at some point in their lives. Nowadays, they are used in mosques to symbolize heaven above earth - similarly to in Christian culture.
When the Arabs rose to power in the 7th/8th centuries, they were often satisfied with flat-roofed mosques and buildings - such as those in Mecca and Medina. The Dome of the Rock (shown below) was the first domed building built, allowing the structure to be lighter and more flexible, but covered in copper to protect it from external elements (weather). While being structurally beneficial, the dome was also visually appealing as a central, unique object covered in gold material. It became a very prominent feature in mosques as a result.
Indian architecture has by and far been influenced the most by Islam and the Muslim empire that took over India for a while. Islamic architecture reflected not only different structural elements, but also differing religious and social needs. Domes were often seen as a symbol of power. Whether religious or political, they often served as a visual focal point of a church or capitol building. The earliest domes were placed over kiblas, that were used to point to the direction of Mecca, the holy city where the Kaaba was located and where all worshippers were supposed to voyage to at some point in their lives. Nowadays, they are used in mosques to symbolize heaven above earth - similarly to in Christian culture.
When the Arabs rose to power in the 7th/8th centuries, they were often satisfied with flat-roofed mosques and buildings - such as those in Mecca and Medina. The Dome of the Rock (shown below) was the first domed building built, allowing the structure to be lighter and more flexible, but covered in copper to protect it from external elements (weather). While being structurally beneficial, the dome was also visually appealing as a central, unique object covered in gold material. It became a very prominent feature in mosques as a result.
 | The Dome of the Rock -Jerusalem, Israel -Opened 691 AD -115 feet tall -Raja ibn Haywah, Yazid Ibn Salam -Islamic, Byzantine, and Umayyad architecture |
Ottoman domes first emerged around the 14th and 15th centuries. Such architecture was largely influenced by Iranian architecture and the earlier Seljuk culture - it eventually was reflected in Byzantine architecture. Domes covered prayer rooms and halls as well as the building surrounding a courtyard - and as the Muslim style dictates - were placed on a square structure, bringing about the transition problem.
The three methods for solving this problem (pictured below, in order) were to use the squinch, where corners of the square room were filled in to provide a base for the dome, the pendentive which is a triangular piece which is narrow toward the square structure but wide at the base of the dome, and the broken triangular surface where triangular pieces of stone were cut out to form a belt at the base of the dome.
The three methods for solving this problem (pictured below, in order) were to use the squinch, where corners of the square room were filled in to provide a base for the dome, the pendentive which is a triangular piece which is narrow toward the square structure but wide at the base of the dome, and the broken triangular surface where triangular pieces of stone were cut out to form a belt at the base of the dome.
After the Ottomans took over Constantinople, they converted many churches that already used the dome into mosques - furthering the use of the dome in Islamic culture. Impressed by the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the Muslims constructed and built many mosques of their own using a similar foundation.
| Hagia Sophia -Istanbul, Turkey -Ashlar, brick -180 ft tall -Constructed in 537 AD |  |
Indo-Islamic Architecture:
While the dome had existed in India prior to Arab control, it became more prominent (and in a different/distinct way) over time, as the Arabs shifted from preliminary contact with India in the pre-1200s era to establishing power in the country post-1200. As a result, Persian culture also influenced Indian architecture. Islamic architectural conventions were not hard to incorporate into Indian ones once the Ottomans gained power. The Indian’s had already been working with and had perfected stonework and the two cultures were similar in location and necessity - their buildings were built to withstand the same weather patterns and support similar ways of life.
Prior to interaction, the Indians and Muslims had focused on two different forms of architecture buildings. India focused on “sculptural” architecture, that emphasized the exterior of the building rather than the interior, characterized by large, externally elaborate temples. The Arabs focused on “membranous” architecture that emphasized the interior of the building, creating mosques that were simple on the outside, but magnificent on the inside and manipulated space to look small from the outside and big on the inside - by using domes and arches. While the Indians had used wood before the Middle Ages, and continued their initial beam and lintel structure using stone, the Middle East did not have much wood in the desert and thus began using stone much earlier. They had developed and used the arch and dome since the beginning. While the dome and arch were simple, they allowed for space to be used efficiently and for Indian architecture to take off. The first mosque in India, the Quwwat al-Islam Mosque (the Qutab) in Delhi - constructed c. 1200, was created using a combination of domes and arches. These preliminary attempts by Indian architects who did not understand the concept of the “true” arch and dome (defined above) ultimately failed as they used a method of corbelling that was unstable and would not support a large building. Once they learned how to build a true dome and arch, Islamic conventions of architecture were perfected and incorporated into Indian architecture. Mosques, schools, and palaces were built in this style.
While the dome had existed in India prior to Arab control, it became more prominent (and in a different/distinct way) over time, as the Arabs shifted from preliminary contact with India in the pre-1200s era to establishing power in the country post-1200. As a result, Persian culture also influenced Indian architecture. Islamic architectural conventions were not hard to incorporate into Indian ones once the Ottomans gained power. The Indian’s had already been working with and had perfected stonework and the two cultures were similar in location and necessity - their buildings were built to withstand the same weather patterns and support similar ways of life.
Prior to interaction, the Indians and Muslims had focused on two different forms of architecture buildings. India focused on “sculptural” architecture, that emphasized the exterior of the building rather than the interior, characterized by large, externally elaborate temples. The Arabs focused on “membranous” architecture that emphasized the interior of the building, creating mosques that were simple on the outside, but magnificent on the inside and manipulated space to look small from the outside and big on the inside - by using domes and arches. While the Indians had used wood before the Middle Ages, and continued their initial beam and lintel structure using stone, the Middle East did not have much wood in the desert and thus began using stone much earlier. They had developed and used the arch and dome since the beginning. While the dome and arch were simple, they allowed for space to be used efficiently and for Indian architecture to take off. The first mosque in India, the Quwwat al-Islam Mosque (the Qutab) in Delhi - constructed c. 1200, was created using a combination of domes and arches. These preliminary attempts by Indian architects who did not understand the concept of the “true” arch and dome (defined above) ultimately failed as they used a method of corbelling that was unstable and would not support a large building. Once they learned how to build a true dome and arch, Islamic conventions of architecture were perfected and incorporated into Indian architecture. Mosques, schools, and palaces were built in this style.
 | Qutab Minar -Dehli, India -Commissioned in 1199 AD -240 feet tall (tower) -Architects unknown -brick -Arabian influence |
While the assimilation of Islamic conventions into Indian architecture were rough and basic for many years, Indo-Islamic architecture reached its peak with the Mughal dynasty in India (16-17th cent). The first major building that typified the Indo-Islamic combination was the Mausoleum (tomb) of Humayun which was constructed so that a square platform carries four identical facades covered by a dome of white marble. The dome is symbolic of heaven, and the square platform of earth - appropriately since the tomb marks someone’s death and transition into the afterlife.
| Mausoleum (tomb) of Humayun -Delhi, India -Mughal Architecture -Architect: Mirak Mirza Ghiyath -Built: 1565-1572 |  |
While Arab and Persian influence was significant, India still preferred sculptural architecture. They did not like the lack of adornment on the outside of mosques and other buildings. While iwans (which are concave openings in the exterior of a wall of a square building, created using arches) were popular in Arabic architecture by this point, India turned the iwans inside out - so they bulged outward - and pulled everything together with a dome in the center. As depicted below, the Taj Mahal demonstrates this practice, which proved to be very useful for tombs, at the peak of its existence.
 | The Taj Mahal -Agra, India -Commissioned 1632, Opened 1648 -240 feet tall -Shah Jahan, Ustad Ahmad Lahouri, and Ustad Isa -Marble -Iranian and Mughal architectural style |
Eventually, the emperor Akbar of the Mughal empire came into power and attempted to further the construction of Indo-Islamic architecture - but with a focus on “framework” architecture and the use of posts and beams for support rather than arches and domes. He built himself a new capitol as well as a tomb at Sikandra - which used a Chatri (dome-like cover) supported by four columns and stacked upon others. Here, the dome was merely an ornamental, rather than fundamental, piece that decorated the tomb and gave it a focal point but did not have as much structural significance.
Mausoleum at Sikandra
-Agra, India
-Commissioned by Akbar, finished by Jahangir
-Built 1555-1613
Mausoleum at Sikandra
-Agra, India
-Commissioned by Akbar, finished by Jahangir
-Built 1555-1613
Here is an interesting video that discusses the appearance and influence of Islamic architecture in India and touches on the history and architecture of some of the more famous buildings with domes from both cultures, such as the Taj Mahal and the Qutab!
Past (and Outside) Connections:
CASE STUDY: European Influence on Indian Architecture
Europeans invaded and colonized/established trading posts in India from the early 1600's to the mid-1900's - leaving lots of time for India's architecture to be greatly shaped by Western conventions. Among the buildings that the Europeans introduced, alongside European-style housing, were churches. Similarly to how the Arabic culture was incorporated into Indian culture to create Indo-Islamic architecture, Europeans assimilated Victorian/Gothic style architecture with Indian conventions to create Indo-Eurpoean architecture. European architects attempted (and often failed) to create public buildings that emulated oriental styles, often resulting buildings created from brick with iron support and domed roofs - not the best combination aesthetically or structurally. The Palladian style of architecture became quite popular around this time period - a style used to create public buildings - and was combined with Indian architecture, but did not have a lasting influence.
In the late 19th century, architects began combining elements and conventions of Indian and Western architecture, producing *successful* buildings that displayed the aforementioned of both cultures. Generally these combined-culture buildings were public buildings such as capitol buildings, colleges, etc, as this was around the time period where function was becoming increasingly important in architecture created. This "Indo-Gothic" revival (sometime's also known as "Mughal-Gothic" as the revival touched many cultures and styles) is exemplified in various buildings.
One example is the Gateway of India, which is constructed using the Indo-Saracenic style of architecture - which called for the merging of exotic Indian (and oriental) ornamentation with skilled structural European engineering. The Gateway combines elements of Muhgal architecture with Britain's Gothic style. The Mughal style of architecture consists of bulbous (onion-shaped) domes (as found on the Taj Mahal), four minarets, grandiose structures, ornamented facades, and large vaulted gateways. The Gothic style includes ribbed arches, vaults, and flying buttresses, as well as tall buildings with gargoyles and lots of decorations and patterns. The turrets (resembling minarets) surrounding the structure are evident in the Gateway, as are the pointed arches (traditional Indian convention) in the front of the building. The building stands tall and is detailed and decorated like both Mughal and Gothic architecture, and the vaulting on the interior of the building is similar to what can be found in a Gothic cathedral.
CASE STUDY: European Influence on Indian Architecture
Europeans invaded and colonized/established trading posts in India from the early 1600's to the mid-1900's - leaving lots of time for India's architecture to be greatly shaped by Western conventions. Among the buildings that the Europeans introduced, alongside European-style housing, were churches. Similarly to how the Arabic culture was incorporated into Indian culture to create Indo-Islamic architecture, Europeans assimilated Victorian/Gothic style architecture with Indian conventions to create Indo-Eurpoean architecture. European architects attempted (and often failed) to create public buildings that emulated oriental styles, often resulting buildings created from brick with iron support and domed roofs - not the best combination aesthetically or structurally. The Palladian style of architecture became quite popular around this time period - a style used to create public buildings - and was combined with Indian architecture, but did not have a lasting influence.
In the late 19th century, architects began combining elements and conventions of Indian and Western architecture, producing *successful* buildings that displayed the aforementioned of both cultures. Generally these combined-culture buildings were public buildings such as capitol buildings, colleges, etc, as this was around the time period where function was becoming increasingly important in architecture created. This "Indo-Gothic" revival (sometime's also known as "Mughal-Gothic" as the revival touched many cultures and styles) is exemplified in various buildings.
One example is the Gateway of India, which is constructed using the Indo-Saracenic style of architecture - which called for the merging of exotic Indian (and oriental) ornamentation with skilled structural European engineering. The Gateway combines elements of Muhgal architecture with Britain's Gothic style. The Mughal style of architecture consists of bulbous (onion-shaped) domes (as found on the Taj Mahal), four minarets, grandiose structures, ornamented facades, and large vaulted gateways. The Gothic style includes ribbed arches, vaults, and flying buttresses, as well as tall buildings with gargoyles and lots of decorations and patterns. The turrets (resembling minarets) surrounding the structure are evident in the Gateway, as are the pointed arches (traditional Indian convention) in the front of the building. The building stands tall and is detailed and decorated like both Mughal and Gothic architecture, and the vaulting on the interior of the building is similar to what can be found in a Gothic cathedral.
The Gateway of India
Indo-Saracenic architectural style
1924
Another example of the Indo-Saracenic style that emerged was the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai. Turrets and pointed arches are evident as traditional Indian architecture, as the extraordinary detailing and high ceilings can be attributed to both Mughal and Gothic architecture. The central circular/patterned window and arches are derived from gothic architecture and the central dome, derived (more likely) from Gothic architecture, acts as a focal point and aesthetically pulls the building together. This building is a train station, and reinforces the idea of buildings being made for functional/useful purposes and then being ornamented with elements from various cultures.
 | Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus) On the left is the facade of the front of the building and on the right is the central dome. |  |
Modern Day Connections:
The architecture I discussed in the last section can be viewed as contemporary or past architecture, depending on how you perceive Indian history. Since India didn't gain its independence until 1947, I don't consider that architecture to be entirely "modern" - it was still under the influence of European countries and not an autonomous nation yet, lacking the opportunity to thrive on its own.
Ultimately, the dome has become significantly less important in Indian architecture and just architecture in general, because churches and mosques are becomingly less frequent (where the dome acts symbolically) and because the dome has generally either acted as an easy way to pull together a somewhat poorly constructed building (and we now make better use of things like arches), or as a decoration/ focal point - which is still does. Domes are an old form of architecture - and while they may be common in mosques and churches from back in the day, they will be found more on public buildings, like courts or capital buildings, in the present day - and even that's just for fun.
Modern day India is much different from ancient India or the Indo-Islamic world that was full of combined architectural techniques and placed emphasis on its structural elements. The time period separating present-day India from its Arabic past consists of brutal imperialism by the Europeans - mostly Britain but also Dutch. Problems that arose with British colonialism such as discrimination and hierarchy resulted in widespread political, social, and ethnic instability. Once the British left India, architecture assumed a very functional personality as the desire for elaborate architecture in a wealthy, powerful country shifted to the urgent need for low-cost, efficient and compact housing for an overpopulated, unstable, poor one. Subsequent industrial revolutions and urban sprawl due to an influx in immigrants exacerbated the situation. Urban planning continues today due to a high population density and the need to conserve space and resources ($) - limiting greatly the ability to adorn buildings and make them large. Thus, lots of the architecture that previously awed so many people has been lost in ruins and in practice.
Examples of the dome and the influence of Islamic architecture still exist in many ways in Indian architecture despite restrictions. The Supreme Court in Delhi is a good example. Constructed to look like a scale, the building has a central dome at the top - not only bringing the building to a structural focal point, but also emphasizing its governmental importance within the city - with offices on one side and the library of the court along with other offices on the other side. This structure was built in the "Indo-European style".
The architecture I discussed in the last section can be viewed as contemporary or past architecture, depending on how you perceive Indian history. Since India didn't gain its independence until 1947, I don't consider that architecture to be entirely "modern" - it was still under the influence of European countries and not an autonomous nation yet, lacking the opportunity to thrive on its own.
Ultimately, the dome has become significantly less important in Indian architecture and just architecture in general, because churches and mosques are becomingly less frequent (where the dome acts symbolically) and because the dome has generally either acted as an easy way to pull together a somewhat poorly constructed building (and we now make better use of things like arches), or as a decoration/ focal point - which is still does. Domes are an old form of architecture - and while they may be common in mosques and churches from back in the day, they will be found more on public buildings, like courts or capital buildings, in the present day - and even that's just for fun.
Modern day India is much different from ancient India or the Indo-Islamic world that was full of combined architectural techniques and placed emphasis on its structural elements. The time period separating present-day India from its Arabic past consists of brutal imperialism by the Europeans - mostly Britain but also Dutch. Problems that arose with British colonialism such as discrimination and hierarchy resulted in widespread political, social, and ethnic instability. Once the British left India, architecture assumed a very functional personality as the desire for elaborate architecture in a wealthy, powerful country shifted to the urgent need for low-cost, efficient and compact housing for an overpopulated, unstable, poor one. Subsequent industrial revolutions and urban sprawl due to an influx in immigrants exacerbated the situation. Urban planning continues today due to a high population density and the need to conserve space and resources ($) - limiting greatly the ability to adorn buildings and make them large. Thus, lots of the architecture that previously awed so many people has been lost in ruins and in practice.
Examples of the dome and the influence of Islamic architecture still exist in many ways in Indian architecture despite restrictions. The Supreme Court in Delhi is a good example. Constructed to look like a scale, the building has a central dome at the top - not only bringing the building to a structural focal point, but also emphasizing its governmental importance within the city - with offices on one side and the library of the court along with other offices on the other side. This structure was built in the "Indo-European style".
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Gamm, Niki. "The Dome - Symbol of Power." Hurriyet Daily News. N.p., 11 Jan. 2014. Web. 19 May 2016. <http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/the-dome---symbol- of-power-.aspx?PageID=238&NID=60863&NewsCatID=438>.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Ten Elements for East Window of an Architectural Ensemble from a Jain Meeting Hall." The Met. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994. Web. 19 May 2016. http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/ 74425>.
Mustafaa, Faris Ali, and Ahmad Sanusi Hassan. "Mosque layout design: An analytical study of mosque layouts in the early Ottoman period." ScienceDirect (2013): 445-56. Print.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. "Art of South and Southeast Asia after 1200." Art History. 5th ed. New York City: Pearson Education, 2014. 771-91. Print.
Gamm, Niki. "The Dome - Symbol of Power." Hurriyet Daily News. N.p., 11 Jan. 2014. Web. 19 May 2016. <http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/the-dome---symbol- of-power-.aspx?PageID=238&NID=60863&NewsCatID=438>.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "Ten Elements for East Window of an Architectural Ensemble from a Jain Meeting Hall." The Met. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994. Web. 19 May 2016. http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/ 74425>.
Mustafaa, Faris Ali, and Ahmad Sanusi Hassan. "Mosque layout design: An analytical study of mosque layouts in the early Ottoman period." ScienceDirect (2013): 445-56. Print.
Stokstad, Marilyn, and Michael W. Cothren. "Art of South and Southeast Asia after 1200." Art History. 5th ed. New York City: Pearson Education, 2014. 771-91. Print.
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